Reased the CEP-37440 site expression of HMGB1 (upper panel). Knockdown of HMGB1 expressionReased the expression

May 21, 2018

Reased the CEP-37440 site expression of HMGB1 (upper panel). Knockdown of HMGB1 expression
Reased the expression of HMGB1 (upper panel). Knockdown of HMGB1 expression significantly inhibited the activation of C6 cells as determined by GFAP expression using western blot (lower panel). f Fluorescent intensity of GFAP was quantified in five areas using Image J software (f). Representative image of GFAP staining in C6 cells transfected with siRNA control or HMGB1 followed by treatment with or without methamphetamine (g). Scale bars all indicate 50 m. All the data are mean ?SD of three individual experiments. *p < 0.05 and **p < 0.01 compared with control group; #p < 0.05 compared with methamphetamine-treated group in C6 cells or primary human astrocytesHMGB1 promotes the activation and migration of C6 astrocytes. Up-regulation of HMGB1 in reactive astrocytes may contribute to the activation and migration of astrocytes through an autocrine feedforward mechanism that increases HMGB1 expression, thus amplifying the neuroinflammatory cascade induced by methamphetamine. Although previous studies have demonstrated that HMGB1 functions as a damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) involved in inflammatory response, it is still remained unclear whether HMGB1 is involved in methamphetamine-induced neuroinflammation. In the current study, we demonstrated that methamphetamine exposure increased HMGB1 expression in astrocytes via the methamphetamine cognate receptor, -1R, which interacted with Src and activated the downstream MAPK/ERK pathway and the NF-B p65 transcription factor leading to HMGB1 expression with subsequent functional activation and migration of astrocytes. To the best of our knowledge, these results demonstrated for the first time the critical role of HMGB1 in methamphetamine-mediated activation and migration of astrocytes. Thus, these findings imply that HMGB1 is a promising therapeutic target for amelioration of the methamphetamine-mediated neuroinflammation orchestrated by astrocytes. Additionally, our study is the first to demonstrate that methamphetamine induced the expression of HMGB1 in astrocytes via -1R, as pretreatment of cells with the -1R antagonist BD1047 or knockdown of -1R abrogated increased expression of HMGB1 mediated by methamphetamine. Intriguingly, activation of -1R with methamphetamine subsequently resulted in phosphorylation PubMed ID:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27107493 of the Src tyrosine kinase. Our previous study indicated that methamphetamine mediates the activation of Src through activation of -1R [3]. Inhibition of Src activation with the Src inhibitor-PP2 as well as siRNA Src significantly blocked the methamphetamine-mediated increased expression of HMGB1, thereby suggesting that Src activation was upstream of the methamphetamine-induced HMGB1 expression. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence that Src activation is involved in the regulation of HMGB1 expression, which contradicts a previous study indicating that Src activation lies downstream of HMGB1 [29].We also examined the signaling pathways involved in methamphetamine-mediated up-regulation of HMGB1. Our previous studies indicated that methamphetamine induces ERK phosphorylation [30?2]. Using both pharmacological and genetic approaches, our findings demonstrated that the ERK pathway is involved in the methamphetamine-mediated increased expression of HMGB1 (Fig. 4), which was consistent with a previous study indicating that ERK activation is involved in the expression of HMGB1 induced by IL-1 in primary cortical astrocytes [33]. However, Ding et al. demonstrated that p38 MAPK,.